Book summary of Make it Stick: The Science of Successful Learning by Peter Brown, Henry L. Roediger III, and Mark McDaniel.

Chapter 1- Learning is Misunderstood

In Chapter 1 of Make it Stick, Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel (2014) contradict what most students have learned about learning. They define learning as the ability to acquire new knowledge and skills, the ability to recall this information, and the ability to apply and use it at a future date. Students have always been taught that the more they practice, the better they will get at learning and retaining new information. Brown et al. (2014) say that this gives a student a false sense of security and results in learning information that rapidly degrades in memory over time. Instead, they suggest that spaced recall is the right way to learn, with two or more other subjects interleaved between the recall attempts.

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Tests should not be thought of as exercises in memorization, but instead as retrieval practice. The more effort that is put into learning something, the more durable the memory. If students just reread and highlight, it gives them a false sense of security because they can recall the words more quickly, and fluency increases, but the underlying concepts are not practiced. To learn the concepts, they need to remember the material, make a mental model of it, and tie it to a foundation of information that they have already learned (Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel, 2014).

Chapter 2- To Learn, Retrieve

Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel (2014) stress that retrieval of information is essential for retaining information long-term and making it stick. Testing in the classroom can provide this retrieval practice. Frequent low-stakes quizzes instead of high-stakes tests can decrease test anxiety, are more efficient than cramming, and inform instructors of weaknesses in student comprehension.  This testing benefit is even more beneficial if it is spaced out, and feedback is provided to purge inaccuracies. Each test interrupts forgetting. (Brown et al., 2014). This testing effect has been studied in both the laboratory and in the classroom. (Roediger, 2014).

Testing and reflecting provide the same benefits, whether teacher-initiated or student-initiated. For best results, use a test format that requires a student to supply an answer instead of just recognizing it. Many people feel that creativity is higher order and more desired than memorization, but learning the information provides the needed base for creative thinking. Use the UBD template to design assessments.

Chapter 3 Summary- Mix up your Practice to make it stick

In chapter three, Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel (2014) explain why spaced practice with interleaving and varied training is much more effective than massed practice. Taking the time to reflect afterward and to elaborate on how you would do things differently the next time, make it even better.

Rapid-fire, repetitive practice seems very useful to quickly learn new skills and commit them to memory, but Brown et al. (2014) say that this practice exclusively utilizes short-term memory. In a classroom study, they demonstrated that when content is interleaved with material from other subjects and practiced in a varied way with breaks in between; it is three times more successfully recalled in the long term. Mixed practice in sports allows for a greater range of muscle memory. This memory is stored in a part of the brain that stores more complex motor movements. By interleaving, for example, working on a few problems from each section of a math book each day instead of working on one part at a time, students can discriminate between the issues better, develop rules to follow, and assess the context of the problem. Conceptual knowledge, as opposed to simple recall, requires the ability to discriminate and to understand the relationships between the parts (Brown et al. 2014). ​

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​This process is not as straightforward as it sounds, however, because teachers can get frustrated with the slower pace and students feel that just as they were about to understand a subject thoroughly, they were forced to move on to new material (Brown et al. 2014). Use the UBD template to define goals and develop a learning plan.

Chapter 4 Summary- Embrace Difficulties

In chapter 4, Brown et al. (2014) discuss the three steps in learning: encoding, consolidating, and retrieving. A sensory perception such as what you see, how something tastes, or how it feels must be encoded into a memory trace in the brain to be remembered.  These new memories must be stored in an appropriate place in the brain. New memories are quickly forgotten if they are not linked to memories or traces of information in a process called consolidation. The more varied the information that is stored in long-term memory, the more cues available for consolidating the data.

Sleep seems to help with this consolidation process. Each time information is retrieved from long-term memory, it is re-consolidated. This process strengthens the synaptic connections and makes the memory trace more durable and helps learning stick. A confounding detail is that sometimes there is a need to forget previous information so that it does not contradict or interfere with learning new material. An example of this is the need to forget a language that was acquired in school so that a new one can be learned without confusion (Brown et al., 2014).

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The more information that is forgotten between recall attempts, the higher the need to learn the material, and the higher the emotional connotation, the more effective the learning will be. Higher-order learning requires the ability to discriminate between details and be able to generate rules (induction). The best way to make sure this process is successful is not to fear failure and to try to create a solution before you are given one. Fear of failure can lead to feelings of incompetence and anxiety, which will disrupt the learning process (Brown et al., 2014).

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Desirable difficulties can make learning more durable by giving the learner obstacles that they must overcome to master the material. These obstacles must be attainable and pertinent to the task at hand. An example given in the text was reading a book with the font slightly off focus. This practice will increase retention and make learning stick because the learner pays more attention while reading the text. The need to focus slows the student down, giving them more processing time. Generating a new idea instead of memorizing material also increases learning. Fill in the blank tests, and essay questions require people to retrieve the information instead of just recognizing it so they will lead to longer retention (Brown et al., 2014).

Chapter 5 Avoid Illusions of Knowing

In chapter five, Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel (2014) discuss some illusions that make learners think they know something that they do not. They first describe the two ways of knowing from David Kahneman’s book Thinking, Fast, and Slow. The first, system 1, is unconscious, intuitive, and immediate. The second, system II, is a slower process using conscious analysis and reasoning. Using and relying on system one without waiting from system II can result in errors in thinking (Brown et al., 2014).

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Metacognition is the process of monitoring your thinking, looking for these errors. Judgments made should be based on outside clues and feedback from others, as this is much more accurate than relying exclusively on your perceptions.  As humans, we like for everything to make sense, so we develop stories to explain what we perceive. These stories may not be based on reality. Memory is based on reconstructions of what we think happened so they can be distorted by suggestion, memory inflation, interference from other events, and the illusion that we know things that we do not. An example of this in the classroom-  a teacher who is very knowledgeable about a topic will lose touch with the reality of how best to teach the material and how long it would take to learn it. Other students are a much better judge of where there are holes in understanding. This understanding is the basis of Eric Mazur’s Peer Instruction (Brown et al., 2014).

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Studies have demonstrated that the most unskilled students are also the ones who are mostly unaware of their lack of competence. Since they lack insight into their shortcomings, they have no motivation to improve (Brown et al., 2014).

So how do we best develop mastery? Brown et al. (2014) suggest making mental models help information stick. Learn how to put all the steps in a process together into a cohesive whole.  Pay attention to external cues and calibrate your thinking based on this input. Seek feedback and listen to it. Use simulations or the apprentice model to provide rapid feedback and error correction (Brown et al., 2014).

Chapter 6 Get Beyond Learning Styles

In chapter six, Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel (2014) strive to debunk the long-held theory that each of us has a preferred learning style and that to learn best, we must be taught new material in that style. This theory is not supported by research and is very limiting. It allows the learner to feel that if they are not taught correctly, then they will not and can not learn. Instead, Brown et al. (2014) suggest that each person should be in charge of their learning. They follow the premise that what you think you can learn or do, will end up being what you can learn or do, so you should extend your boundaries instead of limiting them. The only learning difference that the authors feel has any validity as far as restricting abilities is language fluency and reading ability (Brown et al., 2014).

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​​ A learning difference that does make a difference is intelligence, but how do you accurately define intelligence? It has typically been determined by measuring a person’s logical and verbal abilities. There are two forms of intelligence: fluid intelligence or reasoning ability and crystallized intelligence or the compilation of a lifetime of knowledge. Howard Gardner extends the definition of intelligence to include eight different types: logical-mathematical, spatial, linguistic, kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Robert J. Sternberg defines it as three different types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical (Brown et al., 2014). According to Brown et al., Gardner’s definitions of intelligence have not been supported by research, but Sternberg’s have.

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Regardless of how you define intelligence, what matters here is what you do with it. Typical intelligence testing measures abilities or strengths. Brown et al. (2014) suggest that instead, we should measure or identify weaknesses, work on those areas, and retest. In this way, we measure progress or gains in ability as opposed to a static measure of strengths (Brown et al., 2014).

​Brown et al. conclude by defining two different methods of learning: structure building and rule versus example learning. Those who are high structure builders learn better, build better mental models, and exclude extraneous, contradictory information better than low structure builders. Reflecting on what you did right or wrong allows you to make progress in developing better mental models in the future. Rule learners look for underlying principles or rules when making comparisons, whereas example learners learn many examples and try to compare new information to a currently known model no matter how well it may or may not fit (Brown et al., 2014).

Chapter 7 Increase Your Abilities to make learning stick

In chapter seven, Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel (2014) discuss the plasticity of the brain and how effortful, goal-directed learning leads to the greatest success in making learning stick. Plasticity is the ability of the brain to remodel by a process called neurogenesis. This brain flexibility is in contrast to the original teaching that IQ and capacity were predetermined at birth and primarily determined by genetics.

The structure of the brain consists of gray and white matter. Gray matter is made up of the cell bodies, and dendrites of the neurons and white matter are composed of the myelinated axons of the neurons. A connection between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another is called a synapse, and this synapse is where learning occurs. By the time we reach adulthood, our brain’s 100 billion neurons have formed 150 trillion connections. These connections are reinforced by increased myelination and pruning of unused connections throughout our lifetime (Brown et al. 2014). 

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The brain interprets the information provided by the senses. For a long time, it was felt that the loss of a group of neurons or damage or loss of a sensory modality would result only in significant disability. Neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to remodel itself so that a group of neurons can take over the function of another group of neurons. The work of Paul Bach-y-Rita eloquently demonstrated this remodeling ability. He showed that the tongue could substitute for another sense by mapping sensory impulses and transmitting them to the brain, and then the brain could then learn to interpret these impulses. To better understand this, a worldwide project called the Connectome project was undertaken. The goal of this endeavor is to attempt to map all the connections and pathways of the brain, one cubic centimeter at a time (Brown et al. 2014). 

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Intelligence was felt to be primarily due to genetics and to be an inherited characteristic. This premise can be very limiting because if intelligence is strictly due to genetics and not something that can be modified with effort, then practice and learning are of no benefit. Researchers have demonstrated that children who are taught they are smart are afraid to take risks because they do not want this fact questioned, and they do not want to show the effort they must put into something to learn it.

The average IQ in the industrialized world has increased by about 15 points. This increase is due to environmental factors, not genetic factors, which provide evidence that intelligence is not strictly inherited and can be modified or increased. After this research came out, there was an explosion of technology designed to “train the brain” both to increase intelligence and to prevent the onset of dementia (Brown et al. 2014). ​

Deliberate Practice to make it stick

The message here is that a growth mindset is needed. What you think you can learn or do is what you can learn or do. Children who better understand that effortful learning leads to intelligence and that intelligence levels can change due to these efforts have greater success in school. If students set performance goals for themselves, they will fix these goals at a level they feel comfortable that they can achieve, according to Carol Dweck. She goes on to demonstrate that children who set learning goals, instead of trying to validate their ability, are trying to acquire new knowledge and skills and therefore set higher goals (Brown et al. 2014). ​

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In summary, effortful learning changes the brain. Use of deliberate practice, memory cues, such as mnemonic devices and memory palaces, as well as a growth mindset, leads to the best learning and make learning stick. As Brown et al. (2014) summarize in this chapter, it is self-discipline, grit, and persistence and not just genetic predisposition that can lead to expertise (Brown et al. 2014).

Chapter 8 Make it Stick

In chapter eight, Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel (2014) summarize and give examples of the techniques taught in the book. They start with tips for students, which include: practice retrieving, space out your retrieval practice, and interleave the study of different problem types. They explain that with each of these techniques, your intuition may tell you it is not working, but if you stick with it, you will see results. Elaboration or tying the information to things you have already learned will also help. Some examples of this could include generating concept maps and summary sheets. The generation of answers to problems before you come to class will make it easier for you to know what you do not know and focus your learning in class. Reflecting on what you have learned will strengthen your skills because it is a combination of retrieval practice and elaboration. At the end of your training, you need to calibrate your learning by looking to outside sources for feedback (Brown et al. 2014). 

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The study tips provided by Timothy Fellows in the text are valuable to make learning stick and are summarized below:
1. Do the reading BEFORE you come to class
2. Anticipate possible test questions and generate answers to the test questions
3. Ask and answer questions as you read through the material
4. Make sure you identify and understand all keywords and definitions
5. Take any practice tests
6. Test yourself frequently on critical concepts
7. Space your retrieval sessions and interleave them with the study of other topics

For teachers, they advise that you start with teaching students how to learn, so they understand that the techniques that you choose are based on research results. Teach students how to study. Create desirable difficulties in the classroom with frequent quizzing, problem-solving, and group testing. They suggest that teachers should be very transparent about why they are doing what they are doing (Brown et al. 2014).